Back when the colony of Nigeria was established, the region’s largest ethnic groups were the Igbo in the Southeast, the Hausa-Fulani in the North, and Yoruba in the West. Each group’s political structure developed different customs and values. The Hausa-Fulani, being a small subject of the Sokoto Caliphate, were largely conservative because orders were viewed to be submitted to. The Igbo emphasized social achievement and political participation, with local leaders being able to be influenced. Throughout colonial administration, differences were further developed. Britain ruled through the Emirs, as it was more convenient, and excluded Christian missionaries from the North. In contrast, the Igbos and the Yoruba were more affected by European imperialism; literacy rates were higher and many turned to European education. The nation was also split into regions based on ethnic divisions, with unequal distribution of population.
Following the independence of Nigeria in 1960, the 1964 elections generated controversy. Reports of fraud became widespread and the apparent domination of the political system by the North prompted military personnel to take action. In 1966, there were three coup d'états. Tension was further developed with the persecution of over 50k Igbos during the year, with an estimated 2 million Igbos moved back to the east from other parts of the country. Failed negotiations in 1967 resulted in Lieutenant Colonel Chukumeka Odumegwu Ojukwu, the east governor, declaring independence.
Map of Biafra
With their declaration of independence, the federal government immediately put a blockade on most shipping to and from Biafra. The nation was able to collect some royalties on oil, but had a large shortage of resources and weapons to defend itself. There was some sympathy from Europe, but no countries in Europe recognized Biafra as an independent nation. Britain supported the federal government because they wished to preserve their created country. France supported Biafra, describing the situation as genocide. Despite an estimated 3 million Biafrans dead, 1 million of malnutrition, in addition to 3 million estimated refugees, there wasn’t much additional international help. Because of this starvation and lack of resources, many units were left to fend for themselves, where they would then run out of ammo. Many soldiers were also untrained young men from cities and towns, unacquainted to fighting in jungle terrain.
From 1968 onwards, neither side was able to make incredibly strong offensives. However, the war was leaning in the federal government’s favor with a successful offensive in pushing the northern front and capturing a port. This edge continued while international sympathy began to rise for Biafra with widespread media coverage and the rise of humanitarian organizations. At the beginning of 1970, the fall of one of Biafra’s strongholds signalled the collapse of the resistance effort. The Biafran chief of army staff officially surrendered only 6 days later. After the war, promises were made to resettle and rehabilitate the previous Biafrans who had been displaced from their homes. Economic and social problems were to be solved, and the armed forces and political system would be altered. The subsequent coups and political corruption left many of these promises unfulfilled.
A summary of the “Nigerian Civil War” is that the Nigerian Civil war was a civil war between two groups: the government of Nigeria and the secessionist state of Biafra. It was a culmination of political, ethnic, cultural, and religious tensions, where coexistence between the two groups was no longer possible. This source from Wikipedia seems to be mostly reliable, as it includes over 240 sources and lines up with information from the other two sources. There is, however, the well-known weakness of the ability of anyone to edit the document, but this does not appear to be largely significant for the reasons stated above. This source is also heavily applicable to my research, as it gives not only an overview, but gets into the specifics of the war, media coverage, background, and international involvement.
Wikipedia Contributors. “Nigerian Civil War.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 19 Mar. 2019, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigerian_Civil_War.
A brief summary of “Biafra/Nigeria” is: the growing interethnic rivalries resulting from pre-Independence tension and, with the independence, the division of three groups based on ethnic division created mounting conflict. This tension further grew and resulted in blockades, and eventually war. This source from Gale In Context: World History is reliable because it is published in The Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes against Humanity; both the encyclopedia and the website being very reliable sources. The author and editor also have a context within human rights and research. This article was also very applicable, as it gives a broad overview of the topic in a condensed format. It does not go into as much detail and cover the broad range of topics that the Wikipedia page does.
Olaniyan, Kolawole. "Biafra/Nigeria." Encyclopedia of Genocide and Crimes Against Humanity, edited by Dinah L. Shelton, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2005, pp. 121-124. Gale In Context: World History, link.gale.com/apps/doc/CX3434600053/WHIC?u=tel_k_webb&sid=WHIC&xid=8e927431. Accessed 22 Feb. 2021.
A brief summary of Venter’s account is that he witnessed the buildup of tension and escalation of conflict between Biafra and the Nigerian federal government. He provides this, as well as many battles and military strategies, in a firsthand account. This source is reliable because the author, a South African journalist, is providing an account of his personal time in Nigeria during the events, and has a history of doing so, reporting in Africa and the middle East. This source is not as applicable as the other two sources because it provides lengthy descriptions of specific events, and fails to provide much of a succinct overview. However, the context of the specific experiences is helpful in supplementing the broad overview of the other sources.
Venter, Al J. Biafra’s War, 1967-1970 : A Tribal Conflict in Nigeria That Left a Million Dead. Solihull, West Midlands, England, Helion & Company, 2015. Accessed 25 Feb. 2021.
Image 1:
Gaba, Eric. “Map of the Secessionist State of the Republic of Biafra (1967 – 1970) as in May 1967” Wikimedia Commons, 1 Sept. 2008, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Biafra_independent_state_map-en.svg.
Image 2:
Williams, Peter, unknown. “French Journalist Gilles Caron Photographs the Starving Children of Biafra.” Wikimedia Commons, 1969, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:A_photographer_takes_pictures_of_starving_children_in_Biafra_Nigerian_civil_war.jpg. Accessed 28 Feb. 2021.